Constructivist Approach

The constructivist career counseling process is based on the life story of the client.  It goes beyond the role of worker and career decision making.  Clients explore a variety of life roles and their own beliefs. 

There are seven career counseling techniques:  life space map, life line, life-space genogram, life role cycles, life roles assessment, life role analysis and goal map.

Clients create their own personal meanings and these can be seen in experiences, both past and present, in a variety of life roles.  Counselor assist the client in exploring and discovering their life story.

1. Life space map:  drawn by the client on paper based on prompts by the counselor.  This is discussed as it relates to the client’s relationship to those people represented in the drawing.
2. Lifeline technique- used to discover the client’s story, both past and present.  Events, people, and perceptions are graphically illustrated and they will bring out themes and give meaning to the story.
3. Life-space genogram- illustration of three generations of the client with perceived life roles.
4. Life roles circles- determines what life roles are and assists the client in determining which ones he or she has experienced. 
5. Life roles assessment- client is engaged, the counselor asks questions to identify values and beliefs. 
6. Life role analysis- looks at the benefits and costs of role expectations defined by culture and gender.
7. Goal map- specific, organized goals that provide a road map of behavior that connects the past to the future.  

Gottfredson's Theory

Theory of circumscription, compromise, and self-creation.

This theory was developed to determine why children create social barriers before they every experience them.

Compromise involves making changes to career choices due to things such as gender, prestige, and interests.

Compatibility is determined when the client examines the perceived gender appropriateness, occupational prestige, and how well the career will meet client's needs and desires.

Circumscription occurs when certain unacceptable occupations are eliminated based on gender and prestige.

The circumscription process includes five principles:

1) The capacity of children to understand and organize complex information about themselves and the world around them.
2) Occupational preferences are linked to one's sense of self
3) Children begin to struggle in regards to distinctions among people
4) Children eliminate certain careers as their self concept gets more complex
5) The process is gradual and not obvious immediately

Tiedeman, Miller-Tiedeman, & Liptak

This career decision theory is based on a more personal approach. 

Personal Reality:  this is what the client thinks is right
Common Reality:  this is what everyone else thinks the client should do

Think of it this way, personal reality is the client saying "I want to be a teacher".  Common reality is the client's family thinking he/she should be a doctor. 

There are two major stages in this theory:  1) anticipating and 2) adjusting

The anticipating stage is divided into four phases:  exploration, crystallization, choice, and clarification.  These stages do not necessarily come in this order.

Exploration:  client explores how he will reflect himself
Crystallization:  client's thoughts become more stable
Choice:  choice may come through crystallization, clarity and complexity varies
Clarification:  client reviews the choice and gets clarification of the options

The adjusting stage comes after a choice is made.  The adjusting stage has three phases: 1) Induction, 2) Reformation, and 3) Integration

Induction:  client implements the change
Reformation:  introduction of client into a group and how well they are received
Integration:  Individuals accept one another and excitement may wear off about the new choice

Schlossberg's Adult Career Development Transition Model

 

 

There are three major parts to this theory.

 

Part 1:  Focuses on approaching transition

Part 2:  Focuses on coping resources

Part 3:  Focuses on strategies that can help take charge of the transition

 

 

There are three types of approaching transition:  1) anticipated, which is expected and part of the life cycle (college graduation), 2) unanticipated, which is not expected and caused by things that aren't predictable (layoff), 3) nonevent, which was anticipated and planned but did not actually occur

 

During the transition process, there are several phases:  preoccupation with the transition, disbelief, feeling of betrayal, being confused, being angry, and then resolution.

 

The resolution is different for most every client and depends on their characteristics and which type of transition has taken place.

 

There are four factors that impact how a client deals with the transition:

 

 

1) The situation: trigger, timing, source, role change, duration, previous transitions, other stress

2) The self:  client's personal and psychological state

3) Support:  family, personal relationships, friends

4) Strategies:  seeking information, action, prohibiting action



Roe Personality Development Theory

Roe’s Personality Development Theory

Roe believed that people make career choices based upon psychological needs that come from interaction between children and their parents or caretakers.

Roe created a classification system that consisted of eight groups and six levels of complexity.

The eight groups are as follow:

•  Service
•  Business contact
• Organization
•  Technology
• Outdoor
• Science
•  General Culture
• Arts & Entertainment

The classification levels are based upon the amount of responsibility required in each career.  (See attached tables)

Roe believed that intelligence and temperament are determined by genetics.  She also believed that there are things beyond one’s control such as socioeconomic factors, race or gender, and cultural competencies that affect one’s career choice.

Roe believed that attitudes and interests are not genetic predispositions and are determined by one’s satisfactions and frustrations early in life.  Interests are determined by the degree of need satisfaction.  The more intense the needs, the more intense the drive to be successful.

Lent, Brown, & Hackett Cognitive Career Theory

Lent, Brown & Hackett's Social Cognitive Career Theory is based on the social cognitive theory by Albert Bandera.  There are three important building blocks including self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and personal goals.

• Self-Efficacy- one's personal belief about ability to succeed
• Outcome Expectations- beliefs about the outcome of particular behaviors
• Personal Goals- one's determination to engage in an activity or influence an outcome

This theory outlines that one is attracted to activities in which they can be successful.  Attitudes and values are tied to outcome expectations and self-efficacy.  Gender and ethnicity also influence self-efficacy and outcome expectations.

One's beliefs about their ability to be successful in a certain career and their beliefs about outcomes influence the development of interests.  

• Clients need to examine specific experiences they have had that have helped to develop their current career path.
• It is very important to research how previous learning has shaped a clients self-confidence or self-efficacy about their career, how it has shaped outcome expectations and career interests.  

Counselors should assist clients in setting positive and realistic expectations for themselves and setting specific goals to meet those expectations.  

For more information visit http://www.guidance-research.org/EG/impprac/ImpP2/new-theories/social-cognitive. 

Krumboltz's Career Development Theory

John Krumboltz developed a career theory that includes three distinct parts:

1) Social Learning Theory of Career Decision Making
2) Learning Theory of Career Counseling
3) Planned Happenstance Theory

The Social Learning Theory of Career Decision Making includes four factors that are influential on the career path of an individual.  These four factors are:

• Genetic endowment and special abilities:  athletic abilities or talents (such as music or art), sex, race, gender, and physical attributes
• Environmental conditions and events:  things beyond one's control such as advances in technology, societal changes, economical changes, political forces, natural disasters, and cultural changes
• Learning experiences:  instrumental and associative learning, whether positive or negative
• Task Approach Skills:  how one completes tasks such as work habits, emotional responses, and standards of performance

As a result of these four factors, one develops self-observation generalizations and world-view generalizations.  As a result of all of this, one will behave in such a way that leads to a certain career path.

The Learning Theory of Career Counseling works to take skills, interests, beliefs, values, work habits, and personality and create a life of satisfaction within a constantly changing work environment.  

• Clients should explore new activities and interests so they can expand their capabilities.  This will help to maximize career options.
• Clients should prepare for changing tasks in the workplace instead of assuming that work tasks will remain constant. 
• Clients should be able to take action in implementing a career choice.
• Counselors should be able to assist clients with all work related problems throughout the client's career, not just assisting them in finding a career.  

The Planned Happenstance Theory is perhaps the most popular theory developed by Krumboltz.  Happenstance describes factors such as chance or unexpected events that have an influence on one's career path.  Krumboltz believed that indecision should be viewed as an opportunity for expanding one's possibilities.  It is important to prepare for the unexpected and even create those opportunities if possible.  Fives skills are developed within individuals including curiosity, persistence, flexibility, optimism, and risk taking.  It is important to explore one's options, interests, and abilities.  One should also be able to take a new opportunity when it arises.  

One good explanation of planned happenstance is being laid off from a job and finding a career in a new field.  It is important to counsel clients to take a negative condition and respond to it in a positive manner.  

For more information about Krumboltz's Planned Happenstance Theory visit http://web.stanford.edu/~jdk/HappenstanceLearningTheory2009.pdf.  

John Holland's Theory

John Holland believed that there are six basic personality types and one of those is dominant in each person.  He also believed that personality and career should match up in order for one to be happy and successful. 

The six types are:

Realistic:  Enjoys working with things more than people (woodworking, auto repair, outdoor work)

Investigative:  Searches for solutions to problems and prefers to work independently

Artistic:  Likes to be creative and expressive

Social:  Enjoys working with people, especially in helping others

Enterprising:  Likes working with people, but interested in acquiring wealth and influencing others

Conventional: Prefers to be conservative in work environment, likes to plan and organize, rules are important

There are also six work environments with the same names.  Work environments must coincide with the personality type in order for one to be happy or satisfied.

Differentiated individuals have 2-3 dominant types and clear interests. 

Undifferentiated individuals have interests that fall across many types and do not show a clear preference.  It may be more difficult to find an environment to fit the needs of this individual. 

Consistency refers to the relationship between type and environment

Congruence refers to the fit of the type and environment

For more information about John Holland's Theory please visit http://www.careerkey.org/choose-a-career/hollands-theory-of-career-choice.html#.VOFSKrlOVhE. 










 

Super's Career Development Theory

Super’s Life Span Theory makes assumptions that genetics and geography impact one’s career development.  His theory also assumes that psychological and economic factors play a large part in the development of self. 

Self-concept is how one views oneself and situation.  It is a reflection of one’s personality, needs, values, and interests.  Self-concept changes over time and develops as a result of life experiences.  Therefore, career development lasts a lifetime.

There are different roles that one plays in their life. 

• Child – As long as one parent is still living and one still has a relationship with that parent, one will still play this role.
• Student – Can be stronger at times, but most are continually learning new things.  Obviously this role is stronger when one is of normal school age and when one is enrolled in higher education courses.
• Leisurite – This is role that is played during the time that is spent on leisure activities in one’s life.  This is usually a stronger role in young children and those that have retired.
• Citizen – This is the time spent working within the community and would include volunteer work.
• Worker – This describes the role of working in a full-time job or career.
• Homemaker – This role describes those that come together to take on the responsibility of building a home financially and otherwise. 

Super developed the concept of vocational maturity.  There are various stages in Super’s theory, which are very critical.  During each life stage, one may experience all of the career development stages.

• Birth
• Growth – Occurs from birth to age 14.  This stage is when one begins to develop self-concept, curiosity interests, attitudes, and needs.
• Exploration – Occurs from ages 15-24.  This stage is when one begins to develop work choices, learns more about opportunities, and develops a realistic concept of self.
• Establishment – Occurs from ages 25-44.  This stage is when one begins to stabilize in their career.  During this stage, one may also explore the opportunity for advancement in their career.
• Maintenance – Occurs from ages 45-64.  During this stage, one is holding onto their current career, accepting limitations that exist.  Those near the end of this stage may be holding on until the next stage.
• Decline or Disengagement – Occurs from age 65 and over.  This stage is when one begins reducing work hours and preparing for retirement.  One may plan to do things there has been no time to do and find a good place to retire.

For more information about Super's Career Theory and to view a the Life-Career Rainbow, visit  http://career.iresearchnet.com/career-development/supers-career-development-theory.html.